Principles & Application: Educators & Technology
Research
Adult Learning Models
In The Adult Learner in a Digital Age, I presented a seminar explaining the principles of Andragogy. Because my artifact for this area of my portfolio focuses on Andragogy as a model for adult education, so will the research for this theme. Andragogy is a well known and widely accepted approach to adult education, but not the sole theory of adult learning. For this reason, I will briefly outline some other ideas before discussing andragogy more extensively.
Pedagogy
Pedagogy was a topic of discussion in all my courses in the M.Ed. It is important to understand pedagogy before approaching Andragogy.
Pedagogy is the science and art of education. This approach views the instructor as the information manager, responsible for organizing learning activities. In Bruner’s Toward a Theory of Instruction he describes the process of pedagogical instruction as “leading the learner through a sequence of statements and restatements of a problem or body of knowledge that increase the learner’s ability to grasp, transform, and transfer what he is learning” (1966). As noted by Blondy (2007), when discussed alongside adult education, according to Malcolm Knowles (1984), pedagogy is in sharp contrast to adult learning. In pedagogy “learners are dependent personalities who bring little or no experience to the educational activity” and who do as “they have been told” (p. 116-117). In pedagogy, content is “sequenced logically and centered on the subject versus personal learner needs, and the motivation to learn the subject matter is mostly external” (p. 117). In the M.Ed program, we often talk about finding a new pedagogy, away from the traditional “sage on the stage” approach. This is the goal of many of my artifacts.
Transformative Education
This model is based on the assumption that people go through cyclical transformations throughout their lives. Transformative learning is the process of effecting change, where “the concept of ‘dilemma’ leads to disorientation and then to learning” (Reushul & Mitchell, 2009, p. 11). “Disorienting dilemmas” are new experiences or situations that do not fit with our understanding of the world. In his chapter entitled Transformative Learning: Theory to Practice, Mezirow explains that frames of reference are “the structures of assumptions through which we understand our experiences” that set our “line of action” by shaping and limiting our expectations, feelings, cognition, and perception (1997, p. 6). According to Mezirow, our frames of reference are born of cultural assimilation and influences of primary caregivers, and change when we reflect on “either the content or process by which we solve problems and identify the need to modify assumptions” (1997, p. 6). These expectations are what must be challenged in order for learning to take place. According to Meizirow (1991), meaning is based on the learner’s interpretation of his experience through reflection. In this case, the role of the educator is one of enabling learners to examine the assumptions that make up their beliefs, feelings and actions, the consequences of these assumptions, and alternatives. Thus, adult learners must be open, reflective, critical thinkers.
Andragogy
Andragogy is a term initially coined by Alexander Kapp, a German teacher who used it to describe educational theory of Plato (Davenport & Davenport, 1985, p. 152). It was popularized and influenced by Malcolm Knowles in the United States in 1968. Knowles is credited with exploring a comprehensive theory around Andragogy (Davenport & Davenport, 1985, p. 152). According to Knowles (1980), while pedagogy means "the art and science of teaching children", andragogy is "the art and science of helping adults learn" (p.40). However, Knowles (1980) later allowed that because andragogy's concepts are applicable to some youths, the theory is "simply another model of assumptions about leathers to be used alongside...pedagogical model[s]" (p. 41), not an actual theory of adult learning. Difficult to define, andragogy is an approach for engaging learners that considers their preferences and characteristics.
Chan (2010) explores applications of andragogy, and explains the model is based on six main assumptions about adult learners:
For optimal learning, adults must be actively involved in decisions about learning and take responsibility for themselves. They learn best when they can apply their own experience to relevant, real-life situations, applicable immediately to their lives. Problem based, task-oriented, collaborative projects are examples of ideal vehicles for adult learning according to Andragogy. Assignments should be flexible and allow learners to meet individual as well as organizational goals to maintain motivation. Learning must be valuable to learners and the reasons for learning should be communicated.
Though these assumptions are widely accepted, there has been much debate about the “model” of Andragogy. As noted by Holton, Swanson and Naquin (2001), one issue is that different authors present andragogy in different ways, (i.e. as a theory, technique, method), complicating its definition. Rachal (2002) questions the efficacy of andragogy due to its differing approaches to implementation thanks to lack of criteria and empirical evidence for a functioning definition of Knowles’ formulation. Knowles added the 5th and 6th principles after his initial coining of the concept leading to some confusion, as many critics have noted.
The chart below outlines Knowles Andragogical Assumptions with their implications for teaching (1980).
In The Adult Learner in a Digital Age, I presented a seminar explaining the principles of Andragogy. Because my artifact for this area of my portfolio focuses on Andragogy as a model for adult education, so will the research for this theme. Andragogy is a well known and widely accepted approach to adult education, but not the sole theory of adult learning. For this reason, I will briefly outline some other ideas before discussing andragogy more extensively.
Pedagogy
Pedagogy was a topic of discussion in all my courses in the M.Ed. It is important to understand pedagogy before approaching Andragogy.
Pedagogy is the science and art of education. This approach views the instructor as the information manager, responsible for organizing learning activities. In Bruner’s Toward a Theory of Instruction he describes the process of pedagogical instruction as “leading the learner through a sequence of statements and restatements of a problem or body of knowledge that increase the learner’s ability to grasp, transform, and transfer what he is learning” (1966). As noted by Blondy (2007), when discussed alongside adult education, according to Malcolm Knowles (1984), pedagogy is in sharp contrast to adult learning. In pedagogy “learners are dependent personalities who bring little or no experience to the educational activity” and who do as “they have been told” (p. 116-117). In pedagogy, content is “sequenced logically and centered on the subject versus personal learner needs, and the motivation to learn the subject matter is mostly external” (p. 117). In the M.Ed program, we often talk about finding a new pedagogy, away from the traditional “sage on the stage” approach. This is the goal of many of my artifacts.
Transformative Education
This model is based on the assumption that people go through cyclical transformations throughout their lives. Transformative learning is the process of effecting change, where “the concept of ‘dilemma’ leads to disorientation and then to learning” (Reushul & Mitchell, 2009, p. 11). “Disorienting dilemmas” are new experiences or situations that do not fit with our understanding of the world. In his chapter entitled Transformative Learning: Theory to Practice, Mezirow explains that frames of reference are “the structures of assumptions through which we understand our experiences” that set our “line of action” by shaping and limiting our expectations, feelings, cognition, and perception (1997, p. 6). According to Mezirow, our frames of reference are born of cultural assimilation and influences of primary caregivers, and change when we reflect on “either the content or process by which we solve problems and identify the need to modify assumptions” (1997, p. 6). These expectations are what must be challenged in order for learning to take place. According to Meizirow (1991), meaning is based on the learner’s interpretation of his experience through reflection. In this case, the role of the educator is one of enabling learners to examine the assumptions that make up their beliefs, feelings and actions, the consequences of these assumptions, and alternatives. Thus, adult learners must be open, reflective, critical thinkers.
Andragogy
Andragogy is a term initially coined by Alexander Kapp, a German teacher who used it to describe educational theory of Plato (Davenport & Davenport, 1985, p. 152). It was popularized and influenced by Malcolm Knowles in the United States in 1968. Knowles is credited with exploring a comprehensive theory around Andragogy (Davenport & Davenport, 1985, p. 152). According to Knowles (1980), while pedagogy means "the art and science of teaching children", andragogy is "the art and science of helping adults learn" (p.40). However, Knowles (1980) later allowed that because andragogy's concepts are applicable to some youths, the theory is "simply another model of assumptions about leathers to be used alongside...pedagogical model[s]" (p. 41), not an actual theory of adult learning. Difficult to define, andragogy is an approach for engaging learners that considers their preferences and characteristics.
Chan (2010) explores applications of andragogy, and explains the model is based on six main assumptions about adult learners:
- Self-concept: adult learners are self-directed, autonomous, and independent.
- Role of Experience: adults' experience is a rich resource for learning. Adults learn by drawing on previous experience.
- Readiness to Learn: adults tend to be ready to learn what they believe they need to know.
- Orientation to Learning: adults learn for immediate applications rather than for future uses. Orientation is problem-centered, task-oriented, and life-focused more than subject-centered (Knowles, 1980).
- Internal Motivation: adults are more internally motivated by incentives like self-esteem, than externally motivated.
- 6. Need to Know: adults need to know the value of learning and why they need to learn (Chan p.26-27).
For optimal learning, adults must be actively involved in decisions about learning and take responsibility for themselves. They learn best when they can apply their own experience to relevant, real-life situations, applicable immediately to their lives. Problem based, task-oriented, collaborative projects are examples of ideal vehicles for adult learning according to Andragogy. Assignments should be flexible and allow learners to meet individual as well as organizational goals to maintain motivation. Learning must be valuable to learners and the reasons for learning should be communicated.
Though these assumptions are widely accepted, there has been much debate about the “model” of Andragogy. As noted by Holton, Swanson and Naquin (2001), one issue is that different authors present andragogy in different ways, (i.e. as a theory, technique, method), complicating its definition. Rachal (2002) questions the efficacy of andragogy due to its differing approaches to implementation thanks to lack of criteria and empirical evidence for a functioning definition of Knowles’ formulation. Knowles added the 5th and 6th principles after his initial coining of the concept leading to some confusion, as many critics have noted.
The chart below outlines Knowles Andragogical Assumptions with their implications for teaching (1980).
Professional Development
Learning principles and technology have implications for teaching and learning. Technology can be both the content and the method of delivery of professional development. Adult learning principles play a role in the design and delivery of training. This section looks at how to train teachers in technology and encourage subsequent change in their teaching practice, ideally resulting in better integration of technology in their teaching. Important themes of technology diffusion and change models, and learning context (immediate use, subject specific instruction) arise in my artifacts from Technology Diffusion in Education, and Leadership and Technology, respectively.
Technology Diffusion
In my Technology Diffusion in Education course with Francois Desjardins, we considered “how teachers, learners and education administrators promote, resists, adopt, transform, and re-purpose technologies in education” in order to “describe how technology is adopted in society and integrated in the educational context” (Desjardins, Course Outline 2012). Technology diffusion measures how widely technology is adopted in education, and how “deeply” it is used. As a goal of technology related professional development, technology diffusion is an important part of the discussion of effective teacher education and professional development.
Implementation Dip
This video explains that we construct and adopt technology to improve our performance at something. Over time, using the technology, we increase our ability to achieve growth. The problem is that the introduction of a new technology generates fear and anxiety (we feel unskilled and confused initially), and causes a dip in performance. The dip is a reduction in productivity after implementation due to the fact that we have to relearn something. We must tear down our previous understanding of how a task is completed before we can rebuild our understanding to accommodate the new technology. Over time, this rebuilding fosters a transformation, i.e. we are able to do the job better than we could before, not just work more quickly or easily. This is the challenge of getting educators to use technology, but also getting them to use it in a transformative, innovative way.
Learning principles and technology have implications for teaching and learning. Technology can be both the content and the method of delivery of professional development. Adult learning principles play a role in the design and delivery of training. This section looks at how to train teachers in technology and encourage subsequent change in their teaching practice, ideally resulting in better integration of technology in their teaching. Important themes of technology diffusion and change models, and learning context (immediate use, subject specific instruction) arise in my artifacts from Technology Diffusion in Education, and Leadership and Technology, respectively.
Technology Diffusion
In my Technology Diffusion in Education course with Francois Desjardins, we considered “how teachers, learners and education administrators promote, resists, adopt, transform, and re-purpose technologies in education” in order to “describe how technology is adopted in society and integrated in the educational context” (Desjardins, Course Outline 2012). Technology diffusion measures how widely technology is adopted in education, and how “deeply” it is used. As a goal of technology related professional development, technology diffusion is an important part of the discussion of effective teacher education and professional development.
Implementation Dip
This video explains that we construct and adopt technology to improve our performance at something. Over time, using the technology, we increase our ability to achieve growth. The problem is that the introduction of a new technology generates fear and anxiety (we feel unskilled and confused initially), and causes a dip in performance. The dip is a reduction in productivity after implementation due to the fact that we have to relearn something. We must tear down our previous understanding of how a task is completed before we can rebuild our understanding to accommodate the new technology. Over time, this rebuilding fosters a transformation, i.e. we are able to do the job better than we could before, not just work more quickly or easily. This is the challenge of getting educators to use technology, but also getting them to use it in a transformative, innovative way.
Change Models
Technology Diffusion is an important aspect of the theme of Educators and Technology because much adult training (include my own in the M.Ed program) uses adult learning principles to teach adults how to use technology in education, through the use of technology. Understanding how to “use” technology in education, and how to affect change, is a natural progression from Andragogy in a discussion about Educators and Technology, principles and application. Below I outline major change models that have informed my understanding about implementing change in educators' use of technology, that are demonstrated in my artifacts.
Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM)
This framework applies to anyone experiencing change. When experiencing change, stakeholders ask themselves questions which evolve as use increases. There are Seven Stages of Concern shown below beside the Levels of Use:
This model has implications for professional development in technology:
Lewin’s Three Step Change Theory (1951)
This theory informs the language used to discuss change in my Technology Diffusion in Education Blog artifacts. Lewin’s theory is a simple model or organizational change. The three phases are:
Unfreeze : Reduce negative forces preventing change, undo current mind set by presenting a problem to encourage people to recognize the need for change.
Transition: Develop new behaviours, values, and attitudes.
Freeze: Crystallize ownership of new behaviour/thoughts as status quo to prevent reverting to former ways by reinforcing changes.
From http://www.change-management-consultant.com/kurt-lewin.html
Ely’s Conditions of Change
This change theory emphasises the importance of the environment in the successful implementation of change and should be used by change agents (educational planners, school superintendents, coordinators, specialists) as a needs assessment prior to implementation. Ely found eight conditions that must be present, in some combination, for successful change implementation. Not all conditions must be present, nor are they listed sequentially, but the absence of any condition might reduce the success of the implementation process.
Ely’s Conditions are explored in my group blog artifact titled “Ely High”, which is an asynchronous examination of a hypothetical change implementation in a high school setting, where participants wrote in character as adopters and leaders involved in the ipad program.
- It highlights the importance of addressing questions people have about their own technology use
- Facilitator must address concerns prior to hands on training
- P.D. should focus on getting teachers comfortable with technology use before student learning
- Promotes long term attention to technology implementation (at least 3 years)
- Once teaching practice becomes routine, teachers require “organizational priority setting” to find time and space for higher levels of use
- Professional development teachers must transition from the role of trainer to facilitators, assessors, resource brokers, mediators, designers and coaches.
Lewin’s Three Step Change Theory (1951)
This theory informs the language used to discuss change in my Technology Diffusion in Education Blog artifacts. Lewin’s theory is a simple model or organizational change. The three phases are:
Unfreeze : Reduce negative forces preventing change, undo current mind set by presenting a problem to encourage people to recognize the need for change.
Transition: Develop new behaviours, values, and attitudes.
Freeze: Crystallize ownership of new behaviour/thoughts as status quo to prevent reverting to former ways by reinforcing changes.
From http://www.change-management-consultant.com/kurt-lewin.html
Ely’s Conditions of Change
This change theory emphasises the importance of the environment in the successful implementation of change and should be used by change agents (educational planners, school superintendents, coordinators, specialists) as a needs assessment prior to implementation. Ely found eight conditions that must be present, in some combination, for successful change implementation. Not all conditions must be present, nor are they listed sequentially, but the absence of any condition might reduce the success of the implementation process.
Ely’s Conditions are explored in my group blog artifact titled “Ely High”, which is an asynchronous examination of a hypothetical change implementation in a high school setting, where participants wrote in character as adopters and leaders involved in the ipad program.
SAMR Model
SAMR stands for substitution, augmentation, modification and redefinition. This technology implementation/ innovative use model offers a way of thinking about technology use and its impact on teaching and learning. This model shows the progression of technology use, beginning with use for enhancement, where new technology merely substitutes or augments old methods, and moving toward transformational use that achieves modification of the types of tasks possible, and redefines what is possible. According to Puentedura, the developer of the model, the goal of adding technology in education is to achieve tasks impossible before its implementation. The SAMR model was influential in all three of my portfolio themes.
Context and Professional Development
For my Educators and Technology theme, I wish to highlight the most effective way to teach adults. The andragogy model mentions that adults learn best when their learning can be immediately applied to their real lives, and applied in context. In addition to the models above, I have included a framework for understanding knowledge base from Hughes. This section further explains my concept of context and its implications on professional development and adult learning.
Cognitive Constructivist Learning Perspectives & Prior Knowledge
Awareness of own beliefs is necessary for learning to occur according to cognitive constructivist learning perspectives and teacher change literature because, only once aware, can a person begin to question those beliefs (Hughes, 2005, p.280). This questioning happens when people, situations, or internal reflection provide new ways of thinking, which leads to; congitive conflict, questioning of the knowledge base, and results in a change of action. Prior knowledge serves as a lens through which educators evaluate new knowledge, so learning experiences that provide alternatives or dilemmas may impel teachers toward questioning and changing their beliefs and knowledge (see also transformational learning and andragogy). This change must occur for technology to be integrated into education.
Prior knowledge can be divided into three types, according to Hughes (shown below). When teachers learn about technology use, it is important to identify which base is being drawn upon, and how it is being used (Hughes, 2005, p. 279):
For my Educators and Technology theme, I wish to highlight the most effective way to teach adults. The andragogy model mentions that adults learn best when their learning can be immediately applied to their real lives, and applied in context. In addition to the models above, I have included a framework for understanding knowledge base from Hughes. This section further explains my concept of context and its implications on professional development and adult learning.
Cognitive Constructivist Learning Perspectives & Prior Knowledge
Awareness of own beliefs is necessary for learning to occur according to cognitive constructivist learning perspectives and teacher change literature because, only once aware, can a person begin to question those beliefs (Hughes, 2005, p.280). This questioning happens when people, situations, or internal reflection provide new ways of thinking, which leads to; congitive conflict, questioning of the knowledge base, and results in a change of action. Prior knowledge serves as a lens through which educators evaluate new knowledge, so learning experiences that provide alternatives or dilemmas may impel teachers toward questioning and changing their beliefs and knowledge (see also transformational learning and andragogy). This change must occur for technology to be integrated into education.
Prior knowledge can be divided into three types, according to Hughes (shown below). When teachers learn about technology use, it is important to identify which base is being drawn upon, and how it is being used (Hughes, 2005, p. 279):
Quality Professional Development
In my Leadership and Technology course with Lorayne Robertson, professional development was a strong theme. My Leadership Plan artifact touches briefly on it. Hughes' research finds that ideally, professional development for teachers would offer thoughtful, subject-matter-based technology use rather than the usual short-term workshops focused on learning software without context (i.e. lack of specific content-based examples) (2005, p.280). Professional development should consider desired outcome (i.e. innovation technology integration, not general technical skill) and target Subject Matter Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Further:
- The power to develop innovative technology-supported pedagogy lies in the teacher's interpretation of the newly learned technology's value for supporting instruction. So, professional development must illustrate for teachers how they can use technology in their instruction, specific to subject area.
- Learning experiences must be grounded in content-based, technology examples to transfer effectively (Hughes, 2005), and expose teachers to "explicit models of how student learning unfolds within particular content areas" so they can apply their understanding of learning (Martin, 2010).
- Teachers with less professional knowledge and/or less intrinsic motivation to identify uses for new technology may need guided, collaborative, content-specific tech learning opportunities (Hughes, 2005). One option for support would be employment of "knowledge brokers" or highly trained individuals who provide constant personal support for teachers. These experts ease integration issues raised by resistant veteran teachers, and aid in proper selection of support tools and enhance instruction as a go-between for teachers seeking help engaging more effectively with technology in their practice (Plair, 2008).
- Teachers with more professional knowledge may develop innovative tech-supported pedagogy by bringing their own learning goals to professional development activities, because they have a stronger knowledge base in all three areas.
- Collaborative, subject-specific technology inquiry groups are proposed. Expert teachers might work with knowledge brokers or lead in "Electronic Learning Communities (ELC) which allow for continued contact and peer engagement after the p.d. session is over, as well as reflection on and sharing of learning (McPherson, Wizer, and Pierral, 2006).
- Opportunity to develop "knowledge of theory and rationale, to observe demonstrations and modeling that facilitate learning to practice targeted skills, and to engage in collaborative work with peers" is critical for successful technology p.d. (McPherson et al., 2006).
- Because change stems from questioning of beliefs, "bottom-up" models of teacher education where participants are involved in the planning process, and engage in reflective practice yield better results in terms of educational reform (Roberts, Crawford & Hickman, 2010).
References
Blondy, L. (2007). Evaluation and Application of Andragogical Assumptions in the Adult Online Learning Environment. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 6(2),116-129.
Bruner, Jerome. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Chan, S. (2010). Applications of andragogy on multi-disciplined teaching and learning. Journal of Adult Education, 39(2), 25-35.
Davenport, J. A., Davenport, J. A chronology and analysis of the andragogy debate. Adult Education Quarterly 35(3), Spring, 152-159.
Holton, E. F., Swanson, R.A., Naquin, S.S. (2001). Andragogy in practice: Clarifying the Andragogical Model of adult learning. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 14(1), 118-143.
Hughes, Joan. (2005). The role of teacher knowledge and learning experiences in forming technology-integrated pedagogy. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education. 13(2), 277-302.
Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Cambridge Adult Education. 40-59.
Martin, W. (2010). Connecting instructional technology professional development to teacher and student outcomes. Journal of Research on Technology in Education. 43(1), 53-74.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions in adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Plair, S.,S., (2008). Revamping professional development for technology integration and fluency. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 82(2), 70-74.
Rachel, R. John (2002). Andragogy’s Detectives: A critique of the Present and a Proposal for the Future. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(3), 210-227.
Reushle, S., Mitchell M., (2009). Sharing the journey of facilitator and learning: Online pedagogy in practice. Journal of Learning Design, 3(1), 11-20.
Roberts, S.K., Crawford P.A., Hickman, R. (2010) Teacher research as a robust and reflective path to professional development. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education. 31(3), 258-275.
Bruner, Jerome. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Chan, S. (2010). Applications of andragogy on multi-disciplined teaching and learning. Journal of Adult Education, 39(2), 25-35.
Davenport, J. A., Davenport, J. A chronology and analysis of the andragogy debate. Adult Education Quarterly 35(3), Spring, 152-159.
Holton, E. F., Swanson, R.A., Naquin, S.S. (2001). Andragogy in practice: Clarifying the Andragogical Model of adult learning. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 14(1), 118-143.
Hughes, Joan. (2005). The role of teacher knowledge and learning experiences in forming technology-integrated pedagogy. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education. 13(2), 277-302.
Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Cambridge Adult Education. 40-59.
Martin, W. (2010). Connecting instructional technology professional development to teacher and student outcomes. Journal of Research on Technology in Education. 43(1), 53-74.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions in adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Plair, S.,S., (2008). Revamping professional development for technology integration and fluency. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 82(2), 70-74.
Rachel, R. John (2002). Andragogy’s Detectives: A critique of the Present and a Proposal for the Future. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(3), 210-227.
Reushle, S., Mitchell M., (2009). Sharing the journey of facilitator and learning: Online pedagogy in practice. Journal of Learning Design, 3(1), 11-20.
Roberts, S.K., Crawford P.A., Hickman, R. (2010) Teacher research as a robust and reflective path to professional development. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education. 31(3), 258-275.