Principles & Application: Students & Technology
Research
Students
21st Century Skills & 21st Century Learner
Due to the rapidly changing nature of technology, students today must be prepared for a future that does not yet exist, and is difficult to imagine. A college degree no longer guarantees a steady career in the traditional sense. 21st Century Skills are the types of skills that will be required in future economies, like adaptability, communication, problem solving, and critical-thinking.
In my Technology and the Curriculum course with Robin Kay, The graphic and foreword of 21st Century Skills: Why They Matter, What They Are, and How We Get There (graphic below) by Ken Kay, guided our discussions about the types of learners we encounter in our teaching practice, and colored our reflections on what type of learners we, ourselves, are. Awareness of my own beliefs about learning enabled me to take a step back, and begin to incorporate 21st Century Skills into my Meaningful Technology Tool, and Technology Integration artifacts.
This graphic communicates “the integration of core academic subjects, 21st century themes, and 21st century skills, with the educational support systems clearly aligned to these student outcomes” (2009, p. xx).
21st Century Skills & 21st Century Learner
Due to the rapidly changing nature of technology, students today must be prepared for a future that does not yet exist, and is difficult to imagine. A college degree no longer guarantees a steady career in the traditional sense. 21st Century Skills are the types of skills that will be required in future economies, like adaptability, communication, problem solving, and critical-thinking.
In my Technology and the Curriculum course with Robin Kay, The graphic and foreword of 21st Century Skills: Why They Matter, What They Are, and How We Get There (graphic below) by Ken Kay, guided our discussions about the types of learners we encounter in our teaching practice, and colored our reflections on what type of learners we, ourselves, are. Awareness of my own beliefs about learning enabled me to take a step back, and begin to incorporate 21st Century Skills into my Meaningful Technology Tool, and Technology Integration artifacts.
This graphic communicates “the integration of core academic subjects, 21st century themes, and 21st century skills, with the educational support systems clearly aligned to these student outcomes” (2009, p. xx).
21st century skills prepare students to think, learn, work, solve problems, communicate, collaborate, and contribute effectively. These skills are not unique to the 21st century, but are called 21st Century Skills because:
Net Generation (Tapscott)
The Net Generation is a general term used to describe people born between 1982 and 1991 who have grown up with computer-based technology. Due to this constant exposure to technology, “Net Geners” are thought to learn differently than previous generations. In Growing Up Digital, Don Tapscott explores this phenomenon and finds that there are eight “norms” “rooted in the different experience of today’s youth" (2009, p. 74).
1. Freedom – The internet has given Net Geners “freedom to choose what to buy, where to work, when to do things like buy a book or talk to friends, and even who they want to be” (2009, p.75). According to Tapscott, Net Geners expect choice in every aspect of their lives and reject long commitment.
2. Customization – According to Tapscott Net Geners are not satisfied unless they can accessorize and “personalize a product” (2009, p.79) as evidenced by custom ring tones, personalized online spaces, recorded television, and innovative hardware. Net Geners even want to customize their job description, including work location, hours, and goals.
3. Scrutiny – Used to sorting through large amounts of information on the web (and spam, phishers, scams etc.), Net Geners are naturally skeptical and able to distinguish between fact and fiction (2009, p.80). They are highly aware, and use digital technology to find out what is real. For this reason, the Net Generation expects transparency in organizations and their advertising.
4. Integrity – Though stereo-typically this generation “doesn't give a damn” that claims are supported by facts, according to Tapscott, Net Geners are tolerant, and care about “being honest, considerate, transparent, and abiding by their commitments” (2009, p. 82). Net Geners also expect others to have integrity: They refuse to work for, or buy from dishonest organizations. However, Net Geners do justify behaviors like illegally downloading music, and copyright infringement as “not stealing” (2009, p. 87).
5. Collaboration – Net Geners collaborate online in chat groups, video games, email, file sharing, for work, and for fun (Tapscott, 2009, p. 89). They provide product feedback and participate in teams and discussions because they want to feel their opinions are heard (2009, p.89).
6. Entertainment – Net Geners (and the companies that seek to employ them, like Google) believe that work should be fun. It should be intrinsically satisfying and emotionally fulfilling (2009, p. 92).
7. Speed – Net Geners expect instant responses, instant messages, and fast internet. Product shipping and decisions must be quick as well. Net Geners are “impatient, and they know it” (2009, p. 94) and a failure to respond to them, in a short time frame can result in less emotional satisfaction, and much frustration for New Geners.
8. Innovation – According to Tapscott, the Net Generation “lives to stay current, whether it’s with cell phones, iPod, or game console” (2009, p.95). Because they are used to real time innovation, they reject bureaucracy and demand work that is “leading edge, dyncamic, creative, and efficient” (2009, p.96).
In Robin Kay's Technology and the Curriculum course we critically analysed this reading, finding that whether or not we agree with Tapscott's conclusions, they are useful in their application, as evidenced in my Meaningful Technology Tool artifact.
For more on Don Tapscott http://dontapscott.com/
Criticisms of Tapscott’s Net Generation
Psychology Professor Jean Twenge calls the Net Generation “Generation Me” (Tapscott, 2009, p.84). She describes these students as narcissists that think they are more powerful and important than they are, witch has consequences for their personal relationships. According to Twenge, Net Geners often lack basic human requirements like close relationships, sense of community, a feeling of safety, and a path to adulthood and workplace (2009, p. 83). Tapscott dismisses these claims.
- These skills are rarely deliberately incorporated throughout the curriculum, nor are they assessed making them “nice to have” rather than “must have” (Kay, 2009, p. xx).
- These skills are essential for all students today, not just future leaders and managers (Kay, 2009, p. xx - xxi).
- The skills that employers and postsecondary educators require for success have converged (Kay, 2009, p. xxi).
- The framework adds several skills that are new in education: creativity and innovation, flexibility and adaptability, and leadership and cross-cultural skills.
Net Generation (Tapscott)
The Net Generation is a general term used to describe people born between 1982 and 1991 who have grown up with computer-based technology. Due to this constant exposure to technology, “Net Geners” are thought to learn differently than previous generations. In Growing Up Digital, Don Tapscott explores this phenomenon and finds that there are eight “norms” “rooted in the different experience of today’s youth" (2009, p. 74).
1. Freedom – The internet has given Net Geners “freedom to choose what to buy, where to work, when to do things like buy a book or talk to friends, and even who they want to be” (2009, p.75). According to Tapscott, Net Geners expect choice in every aspect of their lives and reject long commitment.
2. Customization – According to Tapscott Net Geners are not satisfied unless they can accessorize and “personalize a product” (2009, p.79) as evidenced by custom ring tones, personalized online spaces, recorded television, and innovative hardware. Net Geners even want to customize their job description, including work location, hours, and goals.
3. Scrutiny – Used to sorting through large amounts of information on the web (and spam, phishers, scams etc.), Net Geners are naturally skeptical and able to distinguish between fact and fiction (2009, p.80). They are highly aware, and use digital technology to find out what is real. For this reason, the Net Generation expects transparency in organizations and their advertising.
4. Integrity – Though stereo-typically this generation “doesn't give a damn” that claims are supported by facts, according to Tapscott, Net Geners are tolerant, and care about “being honest, considerate, transparent, and abiding by their commitments” (2009, p. 82). Net Geners also expect others to have integrity: They refuse to work for, or buy from dishonest organizations. However, Net Geners do justify behaviors like illegally downloading music, and copyright infringement as “not stealing” (2009, p. 87).
5. Collaboration – Net Geners collaborate online in chat groups, video games, email, file sharing, for work, and for fun (Tapscott, 2009, p. 89). They provide product feedback and participate in teams and discussions because they want to feel their opinions are heard (2009, p.89).
6. Entertainment – Net Geners (and the companies that seek to employ them, like Google) believe that work should be fun. It should be intrinsically satisfying and emotionally fulfilling (2009, p. 92).
7. Speed – Net Geners expect instant responses, instant messages, and fast internet. Product shipping and decisions must be quick as well. Net Geners are “impatient, and they know it” (2009, p. 94) and a failure to respond to them, in a short time frame can result in less emotional satisfaction, and much frustration for New Geners.
8. Innovation – According to Tapscott, the Net Generation “lives to stay current, whether it’s with cell phones, iPod, or game console” (2009, p.95). Because they are used to real time innovation, they reject bureaucracy and demand work that is “leading edge, dyncamic, creative, and efficient” (2009, p.96).
In Robin Kay's Technology and the Curriculum course we critically analysed this reading, finding that whether or not we agree with Tapscott's conclusions, they are useful in their application, as evidenced in my Meaningful Technology Tool artifact.
For more on Don Tapscott http://dontapscott.com/
Criticisms of Tapscott’s Net Generation
Psychology Professor Jean Twenge calls the Net Generation “Generation Me” (Tapscott, 2009, p.84). She describes these students as narcissists that think they are more powerful and important than they are, witch has consequences for their personal relationships. According to Twenge, Net Geners often lack basic human requirements like close relationships, sense of community, a feeling of safety, and a path to adulthood and workplace (2009, p. 83). Tapscott dismisses these claims.
Educational Approaches
Student Centered Learning (SCL)
Student Centered Learning is an educational approach that focuses on the needs of the student, affecting the design of curriculum, course design, and course content. It is the focus of my blog artifact for Online Technology in Education. SCL results from a paradigm shift: from the idea that knowledge is transferred from faculty to students, toward the idea that students learn by discovery and construction of knowledge (Froyd & Simpson, 2008). The focus of instruction and assessment in SCL is learning, not teaching. Instructional methods include active learning experiences like problem solving, critical thinking, role-play, and cooperative learning, not lecturing and textbook work.
In Student Centered Learning, students influence the content, activities, materials, and pace of learning. The instructor provides students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another, and coaches them in the skills they need to do so effectively. SCL can lead to increased motivation, greater retention of knowledge, deeper understanding, and more positive attitudes toward the subject being taught (Collins & O’Brien, 2003).
Other approaches overlap with Student Centered Learning, including Active Learning, Collaborative Learning, Cooperative Learning, Inquiry-Based Learning, Problem-based Learning, Peer Led Team Learning, Team-based Learning, Peer Instruction, Inquiry Guided Learning, and Just-in-Time Teaching (Froyd & Simpson, 2008).
Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning is an educational approach that focuses on students working together on learning tasks. Collaborative learning is “based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act in which the participants talk among themselves” (Gerlach, 1994).
According to Smith and MacGregor (1992), the following assumptions underlie collaborative learning approaches:
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
Problem Based Leaning is an educational approach which advocates experience-based learning. PBL is an instructional method whereby students learn through problem solving and the teacher serves as facilitator to guide students through the learning cycle, which is depicted below.
Student Centered Learning (SCL)
Student Centered Learning is an educational approach that focuses on the needs of the student, affecting the design of curriculum, course design, and course content. It is the focus of my blog artifact for Online Technology in Education. SCL results from a paradigm shift: from the idea that knowledge is transferred from faculty to students, toward the idea that students learn by discovery and construction of knowledge (Froyd & Simpson, 2008). The focus of instruction and assessment in SCL is learning, not teaching. Instructional methods include active learning experiences like problem solving, critical thinking, role-play, and cooperative learning, not lecturing and textbook work.
In Student Centered Learning, students influence the content, activities, materials, and pace of learning. The instructor provides students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another, and coaches them in the skills they need to do so effectively. SCL can lead to increased motivation, greater retention of knowledge, deeper understanding, and more positive attitudes toward the subject being taught (Collins & O’Brien, 2003).
Other approaches overlap with Student Centered Learning, including Active Learning, Collaborative Learning, Cooperative Learning, Inquiry-Based Learning, Problem-based Learning, Peer Led Team Learning, Team-based Learning, Peer Instruction, Inquiry Guided Learning, and Just-in-Time Teaching (Froyd & Simpson, 2008).
Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning is an educational approach that focuses on students working together on learning tasks. Collaborative learning is “based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act in which the participants talk among themselves” (Gerlach, 1994).
According to Smith and MacGregor (1992), the following assumptions underlie collaborative learning approaches:
- Learning is an active process whereby students assimilate information and relate it to their framework of prior knowledge.
- Learning requires a challenge, not memorization and regurgitation.
- Learners benefit from diverse viewpoints and interaction with people from varied backgrounds.
- Learners do best in a social environment where conversation takes place between learners.
- By articulating and defending their own ideas, learners create unique conceptual frameworks.
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
Problem Based Leaning is an educational approach which advocates experience-based learning. PBL is an instructional method whereby students learn through problem solving and the teacher serves as facilitator to guide students through the learning cycle, which is depicted below.
The PBL approach shows students that there can be more than one correct answer to a problem. In PBL students “engage in self-directed learning (SDL) and then apply their new knowledge to the problem and reflect on what they learned and the effectiveness of the strategies employed” (Hmelo-Silver, 2004, 235).
Goals of Problem-Based Learning according to Hmelo-Silver (2004)
Cognitive load theory, the load related to executive control of working memory, points to one potential drawback of PBL, called “guidance-fading effect” (Sweller, 2006). If PBL is introduced too early in the learning process, students are not able to deal with working memory limitations and may find it difficult to process large amounts of information in a short amount of time.
Goals of Problem-Based Learning according to Hmelo-Silver (2004)
- Flexible knowledge – beyond facts, students need to integrate information across multiple domains.
- Effective problem-solving skills – apply appropriate metacognitive and reasoning strategies
- Self-directed learning skills – also use metacognitive strategies to develop lifelong learning skills that enable autonomous learning
- Effective collaboration skills – function as part of a team by establishing common ground, resolving discrepancies, negotiating, and coming to agreement
- Intrinsic motivation – an engaging problem will motivate by appealing to learners’ own interests, challenges, and sense of satisfaction.
Cognitive load theory, the load related to executive control of working memory, points to one potential drawback of PBL, called “guidance-fading effect” (Sweller, 2006). If PBL is introduced too early in the learning process, students are not able to deal with working memory limitations and may find it difficult to process large amounts of information in a short amount of time.
Learning Theories & Models
How People Learn
In my Technology and the Curriculum course with Robin Kay we often referred to chapter two (Key Findings) in the book How People Learn, Brain, Mind, Experience, and School by Bransford, J., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). I have included an overview of the key points from this resource in my portfolio because it has been an influential source in my approach to students and technology, and has much to offer on the subject. The book provides a broad overview of research so that the findings might be incorporated into practice.
Three core learning principles:
Implications for teaching:
Marc Prensky
Prensky (2000) argues that different learning outcomes are best learned through certain types of activities. In Technology and the Curriculum we considered Prensky alongside every topic we discussed. Prensky (2000, p. 156) states that we all learn:
Constructivism
Constructivism is a paradigm that characterises learning as an active process wherein the learner constructs information to create his own representation of reality. Because new information is linked to prior knowledge and personal experience, representations are subjective.
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)
Social Development Theory is a theoretical framework that posits that social interaction plays a role in the development of cognition. It is one of the foundations of constructivism and asserts three major themes:
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Most human behaviour is learned by observing others, then coding the information as a guide for action (Bandura, 1977).
Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)
Multiple Intelligences Theory suggests that there are eight or more different types of intelligence that individuals possess to a varying degree. The eight include:
Existential intelligence (ability to consider big issues like death, love, being) has been identified by Gardner, but has not met all the identifying criteria.
According to Gardner, Intelligence is a “raw intellectual potential to process certain kinds of information in certain kinds of ways”. In contrast, “a domain or discipline is an organized body of skill and knowledge in a culture” (Seider, 2009). Observers cannot measure intelligences, but they can infer an intellectual strength from observing performance in a domain.
How People Learn
In my Technology and the Curriculum course with Robin Kay we often referred to chapter two (Key Findings) in the book How People Learn, Brain, Mind, Experience, and School by Bransford, J., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). I have included an overview of the key points from this resource in my portfolio because it has been an influential source in my approach to students and technology, and has much to offer on the subject. The book provides a broad overview of research so that the findings might be incorporated into practice.
Three core learning principles:
- Students come with preconceptions about how the world works. If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information, or they may learn them to pass the test, but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom (p. 10).
- To develop competence in an area, students must have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application (p. 12).
- A “metacognitive” approach to instruction helps students take control of their learning by defining learning goals and monitoring progress (p. 13).
Implications for teaching:
- Teachers must find out and work with student preconceptions. This requires: a) Teachers must inquire into students thinking and use their initial conceptions as the foundation on which more formal understanding is built (p. 15). b) Formative assessment should be used frequently to make students’ thinking visible to themselves (p. 15). c) Teachers need opportunity to learn to recognize predictable student preconceptions that make subject matter challenging; to draw out hidden preconceptions; and to work with preconceptions (p. 16).
- Teachers must teach subject matter in depth, and provide many examples. This requires that: a) Fewer topics are covered in more depth (p. 16). b) Teachers must have in-depth study experience with the subject areas. They must have a grasp of the growth and development of students’ thinking (p. 16). c) Assessment must test deep understanding rather than surface knowledge (p. 16).
- Teaching of metacognitive skills should be integrated into the curriculum in a variety of subject matters. This will: a) Enhance student achievement and develop ability to learn independently (p. 17). b) Help students develop strong metacognitive strategies should be part of teacher training (p. 17)
Marc Prensky
Prensky (2000) argues that different learning outcomes are best learned through certain types of activities. In Technology and the Curriculum we considered Prensky alongside every topic we discussed. Prensky (2000, p. 156) states that we all learn:
- behaviors through imitation, feedback and practice;
- creativity through play;
- facts through association, drill, memory, and questions;
- judgement through reviewing cases, asking questions, making choices, and receiving feedback and coaching;
- language through imitation, practice, and immersion;
- observation through viewing examples and receiving feedback;
- procedures through imitation and practice;
- processes through system analysis, deconstruction, and practice;
- systems through discovering principles and undertaking graduated tasks;
- reasoning through puzzles, problems, and examples;
- skills though imitation, feedback, continuous practice, and increasing challenge;
- speeches or performance roles through memorization, practice, and coaching;
- theories through logic, explanation, and questioning.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a paradigm that characterises learning as an active process wherein the learner constructs information to create his own representation of reality. Because new information is linked to prior knowledge and personal experience, representations are subjective.
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)
Social Development Theory is a theoretical framework that posits that social interaction plays a role in the development of cognition. It is one of the foundations of constructivism and asserts three major themes:
- Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development.
- The More Knowledgeable Other (a person with a better understanding or higher ability with respect to a particular task.
- The Zone of Proximal Development is the distance between students’ ability to perform a task with guidance, and his ability to do so independently.
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Most human behaviour is learned by observing others, then coding the information as a guide for action (Bandura, 1977).
Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)
Multiple Intelligences Theory suggests that there are eight or more different types of intelligence that individuals possess to a varying degree. The eight include:
- Linguistic intelligence (analyze information, use oral and written language)
- Logical-mathematical intelligence (create proofs, solve equations, carry out calculations)
- Spatial intelligence (understand graphical information, and maps)
- Musical intelligence (create and make meaning of patterns of sound)
- Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (use body to solve problems)
- Interpersonal intelligence (recognize and understand moods, desires, motivations in others)
- Intrapersonal intelligence (recognize and understand moods, desires, motivations within self)
- Naturalistic intelligence (identify and distinguish among products in the natural world)
Existential intelligence (ability to consider big issues like death, love, being) has been identified by Gardner, but has not met all the identifying criteria.
According to Gardner, Intelligence is a “raw intellectual potential to process certain kinds of information in certain kinds of ways”. In contrast, “a domain or discipline is an organized body of skill and knowledge in a culture” (Seider, 2009). Observers cannot measure intelligences, but they can infer an intellectual strength from observing performance in a domain.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)
This theory starts with the “multiple principle”, which states that “people learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone” (Mayer). The goal of this approach to instructional media is to combine the two in an effective way. The theory is based on three assumptions:
1. There are two separate channels for processing information (auditory and visual)
2. There is limited channel capacity
3. Learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information
From http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitive-theory-of-multimedia-learning-mayer.html
ARCS Model of Motivational Design (John Keller)
According to this theory, there are four steps for promoting and sustaining student motivation throughout the learning process:
Attention – use these strategies to gain attention
- Perceptual arousal (surprising or uncertain events)
- Inquiry arousal (posing questions or problems to be solved)
- Active participation ( games, role-play, hands-on learning)
- Variability (reinforce material in different ways and accommodate learning styles)
- Humor
- Conflict (consider different opinions)
- Specific examples
- Inquiry (pose and solve questions, brainstorm)
Relevance – use these strategies to increase motivation
- Use familiar concrete language and examples
- Experience (how will new learning use existing skills)
- Present Worth (how can learning be used today)
- Future Usefulness (how can learning be used tomorrow)
- Needs Matching (take advantage of risk taking, power, and affiliation)
- Modeling (real people set examples)
- Choice (learners choose types of assignments or pathways)
Confidence – use these strategies to convince students that they can succeed
- Provide objectives and prerequisites (ensure learners are aware of performance requirements and evaluation criteria)
- Meaningful success
- Grow the Learners
- Feedback
- Learner Control (Learners should believe their success if a direct result of the amount of effort they put forth)
Satisfaction – use these strategies to reward achievement
- Praise from a higher-up
- Provide opportunities to use new knowledge in a real setting
- Provide feedback and reinforcement
- Do not patronize by over-rewarding easy tasks
From: http://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcs-model-of-motivational-design.html
References
“21ST Century Skills” (2007). In Route 21. Retrieved February 20th, 2013, from http://route21.p21.org/index.php
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Bransford, J., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn, brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington: National Academies Press.
Froyd, J., & Simpson, N. (2008, August). Student-centered learning addressing faculty questions about studentcentered learning. Course, Curriculum, Labor, and Improvement Conference, Washington DC. Retrieved (Vol. 30, No. 11).
Gerlach, J. M. (1994). "Is this collaboration?" In Bosworth, K. and Hamilton, S. J. (Eds.), Collaborative Learning: Underlying Processes and Effective Techniques, New Directions for Teaching and Learning No. 59.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review 16(3) 235-266.
Index of Learning Theories and Models. (n.d.). In Learning Theories. Retrieved October 15th, 2013, from http://www.learning-theories.com/
Kay, K. (2009). Forword. In 21st Century Skills (p. i – xxxi). Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated.
Prensky, M. (2000). Digital game-based learning. New York:McGraw-Hill.
Smith, B. L., and MacGregor, J. T. (1992). "What is collaborative learning?" In Goodsell, A. S., Maher, M. R., and Tinto, V. (Eds.),Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education. National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, & Assessment, Syracuse University.
Sweller, John (2006). The worked example effect and human cognition .Learning and Instruction. 16 (2): 165–169.
Seider, S. (2009). Multiple intelligences. In B. Kerr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. (pp. 605-608). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: http://dx.doi.org.proxy.queensu.ca/10.4135/9781412971959.n260
Tapscott, D. (2009). Grown up digital: How the net generation is changing your world. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Bransford, J., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn, brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington: National Academies Press.
Froyd, J., & Simpson, N. (2008, August). Student-centered learning addressing faculty questions about studentcentered learning. Course, Curriculum, Labor, and Improvement Conference, Washington DC. Retrieved (Vol. 30, No. 11).
Gerlach, J. M. (1994). "Is this collaboration?" In Bosworth, K. and Hamilton, S. J. (Eds.), Collaborative Learning: Underlying Processes and Effective Techniques, New Directions for Teaching and Learning No. 59.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review 16(3) 235-266.
Index of Learning Theories and Models. (n.d.). In Learning Theories. Retrieved October 15th, 2013, from http://www.learning-theories.com/
Kay, K. (2009). Forword. In 21st Century Skills (p. i – xxxi). Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated.
Prensky, M. (2000). Digital game-based learning. New York:McGraw-Hill.
Smith, B. L., and MacGregor, J. T. (1992). "What is collaborative learning?" In Goodsell, A. S., Maher, M. R., and Tinto, V. (Eds.),Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education. National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, & Assessment, Syracuse University.
Sweller, John (2006). The worked example effect and human cognition .Learning and Instruction. 16 (2): 165–169.
Seider, S. (2009). Multiple intelligences. In B. Kerr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. (pp. 605-608). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: http://dx.doi.org.proxy.queensu.ca/10.4135/9781412971959.n260
Tapscott, D. (2009). Grown up digital: How the net generation is changing your world. New York: McGraw-Hill.